Bangladesh emerged as an independent nation state in 1971 committed to a secular liberal democracy. While its secular politics was compatible with ideas of gender equality, the new government was too busy dealing with the ravages of war to pursue this objective creatively. Nor was there a significant women's movement at the time to influence policy. A major concern of the state was to rehabilitate destitute or raped women, often marriage was regarded as the only means.

In Bangladesh women constitute about half of the population, the majority of them are underprivileged, under-nourished, illiterate and poor. In their lifetime, they experience two fold realities: one determined by a culture and tradition that tends to keep them inside family homesteads and the other shaped by increasing poverty that forces them outside into wage employment for economic survival. There are not enough employment opportunities for women. Therefore, economic activities through self-employment became essential for potential working women. There has arisen a new class: the women micro-entrepreneurs. Although there has been substantial participation of women in the off-house activities, yet Bangladesh women still have not been able to impose a controlling authority in mainstream production.

Socio-economic status of women

Bangladesh is a low income developing country with a population of 114 million growing at the rate of 2 per cent per annum. The female population is approximately 48.6 per cent. Eighty five per cent of the population is rural. The economy is primarily agrarian: 36 per cent of the gross domestic product (GDP) originates in agriculture. The manufacturing sector accounts for only 10 per cent of the GDP. The country is aid dependent for a large share of its development expenditure. This was 35 per cent under Mujib, 40 per cent under Zia and 48 per cent under Ershad in the early years, 1981/82 to 1984/85; subsequently, down to 42 per cent in the budget of 1986/87 to 1987/88.6 Under the current elected government of Khaleda Zia, $1.8 million in aid meets two-third of the country's development expenditure.

The socio-economic indicators of female status reveal that women bear a disproportionately high share of the country's underdevelopment compared to men. The literacy rate for women, 15 years and above, is 24.2 per cent compared to 45.5 per cent for men of the same cohort. Their life expectancy is 55.4 years as against 56.4 years for men. The daily per capita calorie intake for women is 1,599 k cal while for men it is considerably higher, 1,927 k cal. The wage rates for women is 58 per cent of men's for the same job, dropping to 43 per cent during the slack season. As much as 43 per cent women and only 8 per cent men earn less than Tk 100 ($2.5) per week.

Despite this bleak picture, there has been an increase in the levels of female participation in the national economy. More phenomenal changes occurred in urban areas: while the economically active population grew at the rate of 7.1 per cent annually, this was 50 per cent among the female population!

There has been a steady transfer of the labour force from agricultural to non-agricultural occupations such as manufacturing, as well as some improvement in the working and living standards of women. With the changing pattern of female labour increasing attention has been paid to the terms and conditions of work such as wages, working hours and child care facilities in the workplace as well as access to public resources like health care, education and training. However, it has also given rise to male hostility. Waz mahfils have condemned women for the destruction of the soil and causing crop failure because they go out to work. A more earthly reason for such censure is economic competition.

The subordination of women

The subordination of the majority of women is illustrated by the attitudes of men derived from socially and culturally determined concepts of gender roles which prevent women from becoming self reliant. Women are considered inferior by most men, even in professions like journalism. Women's work is undervalued both in terms of pay and status. Women are primarily expected to be wives and mothers engaged in undervalued work like reproducing and rearing children, cooking, cleaning and looking after the household.

Otherwise, they are expected to work in areas considered suitable for women: in the agricultural sector, this includes sowing, husking, reaping etc. and in the non-agricultural sector, teaching, sewing, knitting, crafts and embroidary etc. But, as Bhattacharya points out, it is in the non-traditional sector of manufacturing that women may expect changes in the sexual division of labour, higher incomes and a concomitant change in social attitudes.