Mahayana Buddhism was the state religion, and Buddhists comprised about 70 percent of the population in the early 1990s. Although originating from Tibetan Buddhism, Bhutanese Buddhism differs significantly in its rituals, liturgy, and monastic organization. The state religion has long been supported financially by the government through annual subsidies to monasteries, shrines, monks, and nuns. In the modern era, support of the state religion during the reign of Jigme Dorji Wangchuck included the manufacture of 10,000 gilded bronze images of the Buddha, publication of elegant calligraphied editions of the 108- volume Kanjur (collection of the words of the Buddha) and the 225-volume Tenjur (collection of commentaries), and the construction of numerous chorten (stupas) throughout the country. Guaranteed representation in the National Assembly and the Royal Advisory Council, Buddhists constituted the majority of society and were assured an influential voice in public policy.

In terms of religion and faith, Bhutanese people practise Lamaist Buddhism, Hinduism, Christianity and Animism. The Lamaist Buddhism is divided into two groups- Drukpa Kargyupa sect to which the King and other high government officials belong to and Nyingmapa Buddhism. The Sharchhop community in the east practise Nyingmapa Buddhism.

Out of estimated 19,130 Christians, about 10,630 are living as refugees in Nepal and India. In 1989, some 1,000 monks (lam, or gelong, novices) belonged to the Central Monastic Body in Thimphu and Punakha, and some 4,000 monks belonged to district monastic bodies. The hierarchy was headed by the Je Khenpo, who was assisted by four lonpon or masters, each in charge of religious tradition, liturgy, lexicography, or logic.

The lonpon, one of whom, the Dorji Lonpon, normally succeeded the current Je Khenpo, had under religious administrators and junior monastic officials in charge of art, music, and other areas. Gelugpa monks were celibate, but Nyingmapa monks were not so restricted and could marry, raise families, and work in secular occupations while performing liturgical functions in temples and homes. There were some 12,000 monks in Bhutan in the late 1980s. There were also active congregations of nuns, but no figures were readily available.

The majority of Bhutan's Buddhists are adherents of the Drukpa subsect of the Kargyupa (literally, oral transmission) school, one of the four major schools of Tibetan Buddhism, which is itself a combination of the Theravada (monastic), Mahayana (messianic), and Tantrayana (apocalyptic) forms of Buddhism. Tibetan Buddhism holds that salvation can be achieved through the intercession of compassionate bodhisattvas (enlightened ones) who have delayed their own entry into a state of nibbana, or nirvana, enlightenment and selfless bliss, to save others. Emphasis is put on the doctrine of the cosmic Buddha, of whom the historical Buddha - "Siddhartha Gautama" (ca. 563-ca. 483 B.C.)--was only one of many manifestations.

Bodhisattvas are in practice treated more as deities than as enlightened human beings and occupy the center of a richly polytheistic universe of subordinate deities; opposing, converted, and reformed demons; wandering ghosts; and saintly humans that reflects the shamanistic folk religion of the regions into which Buddhism expanded. Tantrism contributed esoteric techniques of meditation and a repertoire of sacred icons, phrases, gestures, and rituals that easily lent themselves to practical (rather than transcendental) and magical interpretation.

The Kargyupa school was introduced into Tibet from India and into Bhutan from Tibet in the eleventh century. The central teaching of the Kargyupa school is meditation on mahamudra (Sanskrit for great seal), a concept of having realized the emptiness to freedom from reincarnation. Also central to the Kargyupa school are the dharma (laws of nature, all those exist, real or imaginary), which consist of six Tantric meditative practices teaching bodily self-control so as to achieve nirvana. One of the key aspects of the Kargyupa school is the direct transmission of the tenets of the faith from teacher to disciple. The Drukpa subsect, which grew out of one of the four Kargyupa sects, was the pre eminent religious belief in Bhutan by the end of the twelfth century.

Monasteries and convents were common throughout Bhutan in the late 20th century. Both monks and nuns kept their heads shaved and wore distinguishing maroon robes. Their days were spent in study and meditation but also in the performance of rituals honoring various bodhisattvas, praying for the dead, and seeking divine intercession on behalf of the ill. Some of their prayers involved chants and singing accompanied by conch shell trumpets, thighbone trumpets (made from human thighbones), metal horns up to three meters long, large standing drums and cymbals, hand bells, temple bells, gongs, and wooden sticks. Such monastic music and singing, not normally heard by the general public, has been reported to have "great virility" and to be more melodious than its Tibetan monotone counterparts.

To bring Buddhism to the people, numerous symbols and structures are employed. Religious monuments, prayer walls, prayer flags, and sacred mantras carved in stone hillsides were prevalent in the early 1990s. Among the religious monuments are chorten, the Bhutanese version of the Indian stupa. They range from simple rectangular "house" chorten to complex edifices with ornate steps, doors, domes, and spires. Some are decorated with the Buddha's eyes that see in all directions simultaneously.

These earth, brick, or stone structures commemorate deceased kings, Buddhist saints, venerable monks, and other notables, and sometimes they serve as reliquaries. Prayer walls are made of laid or piled stone and inscribed with Tantric prayers. Prayers printed with woodblocks on cloth are made into tall, narrow, colorful prayer flags, which are then mounted on long poles and placed both at holy sites and at dangerous locations to ward off demons and to benefit the spirits of the dead. To help propagate the faith, itinerant monks travel from village to village carrying portable shrines with many small doors, which open to reveal statues and images of the Buddha, bodhisattavas, and notable lamas.

Entering the Buddhist world one is immediately aware of, and easily confused by, its inherent complexity. The essential essence of the Lord Buddha's teachings has been developed in a number of different directions to generate a multitude of alternative categorizations, symbolisms and practices. Born over 2,500 years ago in northern India, Buddhism divided into two great traditions: the Hinayana or 'Lesser Vehicle' - more commonly known as Theravada - now the dominant form in Southeast Asia, Burma and Sri Lanka; and the Mahayana or 'Greater Vehicle', as practiced in China, Vietnam and East Asia. The Tantrayana (Vajrayana) or 'Diamond Vehicle' evolved from within the Mahayana school, and was adopted across the Himalayas.

"The Hinayana should be taken as knowledge. The Mahayana should be taken as attitude. Tantra means practice. Tantrayana is the quickest way to become Buddha - like a rocket going to the moon." Tantric Buddhism offers a fast track to enlightenment. It is understood that the Buddha's instructions are contained not only in the Tripitaka - the Sutra (scriptures), the Vinaya (monastic discipline and ethics) and the Abhidharma (underlying psychology and logic) - but also in the Vajrayana (the Tantras). These constitute powerful 'hidden teachings', whose meaning can only be understood through the explanations of a religious master (or lama), and the practice of which imparts great merits.

Mahayana Buddhism recognizes a pantheon of symbolic deities and bodhisattvas (Buddhas-to-be), who have attained enlightenment and the option of Nirvana, but have chosen to reincarnate in the world of humans to help others. This is the idea behind the Rinpoche (or Tulku), the auspicious reincarnation of a previous enlightened personality. Furthermore, six realms of conditioned existence (or Samsara) are identified, each associated with a particular mental poison: hells (anger), hungry ghosts (greed), animals (ignorance), humans (desire), demigods (jealousy) and gods (pride). The actions of great saints can be interpreted (and are often depicted) on each of these levels. Throughout the Tibetan Buddhist Diaspora, Tantric Buddhism evolved in a particular way associated with the pre-Buddhist context. Certain elements of the earlier shamanic Bon religion have been assimilated, including the worship of mountains and local deities.

Tibetan Buddhism has over time developed into different schools and a number of sub-schools. The four major schools that predominate are the Nyingmapa (the 'ancients' directly linked to Guru Rinpoche), the Sakyapa, the Kagyupa (associated with the Karmapa) and the Gelugpa (the 'new' tradition allied to the Dalai Lama). The Drukpa Kagyupa sect followed in Bhutan is one of twelve Kagyu sub-schools, differentiated by the variations in method introduced by their respective founders. Each school uses two basic kinds of texts - Tibetan translations of original Sanskrit works accompanied by commentaries, and the philosophical treatises written by the masters of each school, often also supplemented by commentaries. Although practiced, taught and studied in different ways, the various schools are not radically different, and all subscribe to the essential essence of the Buddha's teachings.

The basic philosophy that informs a Buddhist perspective can be summarized by the Four Noble Truths - anguish, its origin, its cessation and the path leading to cessation - as expounded by the Lord Buddha shortly after achieving enlightenment.

The 'first truth' explains that our conditioned existence is never free from a state of suffering. Any happiness we enjoy is only temporary and in due course gives way to anguish. The reason for this - as described by the 'Second Truth' - is that any action one may do, say or think gives rise to a result which has to be experienced either later in one's life or in a future life. Rebirth is a result of one's actions, and the conditions into which one is born in one life are directly dependent on one's actions in previous lives, and more particularly the motives and attitudes involved.

The 'second truth', the principle of cause and effect or Karma, implies a degree of fatalism regarding material conditions. These are interpreted as possessing only a phenomenological existence and no true reality except on the plane of relative truth. It goes on to explain that the motivations behind our actions are negative emotions such as hatred, attachment, pride, jealousy and especially ignorance, which is the root of all the others. This ignorance concerns not only a lack of wisdom in how we act, but the basic ignorance behind how we perceive the whole of existence and constantly become caught by our clinging to the idea of our own egos and of the outer world as solid and lasting. We are therefore caught in Samsara, the cycle of existence in which one is endlessly propelled by negative emotions and the karmic force of one's actions from one state of rebirth to another.

The 'third truth' introduces the notion that it is possible to bring an end to our state of anguish. The principle insight is that our perceived reality, in both life and death, is only a state of mind, and can therefore be changed. The cessation of suffering and freedom from conditioned existence can be broken if and when we cease to act through ignorance.

The 'fourth truth' explains the path through which this can be achieved. This essentially embodies two methods: the accumulation of positive actions, such as charity, forgiveness and reverence and support of the Three Jewels (the Buddha, the Dharma (his teachings), and the Sangha (the community of practitioners)); and the practice of meditation, which can directly dispel the root ignorance which is the cause of anguish.

The core aspiration behind the 'Forth Truth' is the break from Samsara and the attainment of Nirvana, the state beyond suffering, an absolute emptiness in which there is no distinction between a subject and the object of its thoughts. This is possible through the complete realization of our Buddha nature, thereby achieving enlightenment. Each one of us possesses the innate potential to become a Buddha, one who has completely awakened from ignorance and become opened to one's vast potential of wisdom. A practitioner who follows the path with only his own liberation in mind can attain a high degree of understanding and overcome the negative emotions. However, only those who have as their motivation the good and ultimate enlightenment of all other beings can accomplish final Buddhahood.

Tantric (Tibetan) Buddhism has more recently generated widespread interest and gained a global following. Mahayana Buddhism in its Vajrayana (tantric) derivation is commonly associated with the lively personality of the Dalai Lama and meditation practices. At a more theoretical level, its sympathetic holistic values appear to closely correspond with those of a "postmodern" world. It attained its philosophical and artistic peaks within Tibet, where it was firmly settled by the Eighth Century. The beliefs were disseminated by wandering monks throughout the mountainous areas of inner Asia, and attained a strong adherence within the Himalayan Kingdoms of Ladakh, Mustang, Sikkim and Bhutan and in smaller pockets throughout the region.

For most of its history the Tibetan Buddhist Diaspora remained essentially detached from the outside world and Buddhism flowered as a civilization. Indeed, Tantric Buddhism is not so much a religion as a holistic approach to life. However, in the previous half-century these communities have experienced major displacements. More powerful neighbors have swallowed them up, and they have become overrun by new aspirations and authorities. Although religious belief remains strong, underlying contexts have changed. Bhutan continues as the only place where the faith remains observed within something resembling its traditional political, cultural, social and natural environments.

Immediately apparent are the ubiquity of the religion and the overall intensity of faith. To relate to Bhutan's present situation is to appreciate the overwhelming role that Buddhism continues to play. Values and belief systems circulate throughout Bhutanese life and form the bedrock upon which other structures have evolved. They are evident in all spheres, from individual outlooks, through social customs and institutions, to the functioning of the state. Perhaps they are at their most evocative when interpreted within small, distant, self-reliant communities. It is in these settings that the full spectrum of Tantric Buddhist teaching is most conspicuous - the interconnectedness of all living things, the solidarity bred from compassion, and the arcane and somewhat ethereal character.

In Bhutan one is surrounded by religion. Chortens, monasteries and temples dot the landscape, prayer flags flutter from hilltops, red-robed monks are in abundance, somber ceremonial sounds drift in the air. The country is full of holy sites, accorded significance through Buddhist luminaries and stories about their fantastic achievements. There are some magnificent examples of religious texts, art and architecture. Most private houses have a prayer room, and most families organize ritual observances (pujas) at least once every year. Many prefer to treat illness through traditional techniques that address both physical and spiritual sources. Whether at an organized festival or ceremony, within a monastery or in quiet personal prayers, evidence of Buddhist practice abounds.

Religion plays a major part in most people's lives, whether in a ritualistic mode or through more subtle teachings. The country maintains a state sponsored monk body of around 5000, which is called upon to perform a variety of public and private functions. Aside from its spiritual role the monastic community also carries out social welfare activities, both in traditional integrated forms and in the more formal development process. Wealthy patrons build temples and support monastic foundations. Rinpoches are treated with great reverence. The elected Chief Abbot (the Je Khenpo) holds an equal ceremonial rank to the King, and religion continues to play a major role in national affairs. Power is formalized within a centralized institution, the Dratshang Lhentshog, and representatives from the clergy sit on major decision-making bodies, such as the Royal Advisory Council and the National Assembly.

As indicated by the Noble Eightfold Path - correct understanding, correct thought, correct speech, correct action, correct livelihood, correct effort, correct mindfulness and correct meditation - Buddhism is not so much a religion as a holistic approach to life. Tantric Buddhism, with its emphasis on practice, implies a still more intimate relationship. Although for most the stated guidelines will remain aspirations, following the path is undoubtedly facilitated if one lives within structures that encourage or at the very least do not obstruct such values. Buddhist societies - almost by definition - appear the most suitable locations for the promotion of the broad faith. The prevailing conditions within Bhutan certainly afford suitable opportunities for those who either wish to live a relatively virtuous existence or undertake more serious explorations.

Perhaps the most striking aspect of Buddhism in Bhutan is the broader context within which the religion remains so fundamental and merges so seamlessly. The country possesses a special sense of spirituality, where specifically religious features are combined with more broad ranging human practices. This is reflected in the fundamental role Buddhism has played in the evolution of social and cultural systems. To appreciate the religion within a traditional village environment affords one a particular insight.

Distant self-reliant agrarian communities subsisting in inhospitable conditions promote a sense of collective solidarity and serve to highlight the interconnectedness of all living things. Within such isolated settings it is not all that remarkable that individual perspectives attribute greater significance and intimacy to relationships with other realms. Traditional outlooks perpetuate that combine the natural and the supernatural, legend and superstition, perception and practice, in an unusually integrated manner. With the onset of modernity it is unlikely that such assimilated landscapes will remain.

The minority religion of Bhutan is Hinduism, whose adherents, those of Nepalese origin - officially constitute 28 percent of the population. Despite Buddhism's status as the state religion, Hindus had de facto freedom of religion. The Druk Gyalpo decreed major Hindu festivals as national holidays, and the royal family participated in them. An even smaller religious minority - about 5 percent of the population in 1989 - practiced Islam. Although foreign religious personnel were permitted to work in Bhutan, primarily as educators, they were not allowed to proselytize.