The Vedic civilization is the earliest
civilization in Indian history
of which we have written records that we understand.
It is named after the Vedas, the early literature
of the Hindu
people. The Vedic texts have astronomical dates that
some have claimed go back to the 5th millennium BC.
The use of Vedic
Sanskrit continued up to the 6th
century BC. Vedic is synonymous with Hinduism,
which is another name for the system of religious and
spiritual thought that has evolved from the Vedas.
The
early Aryans
Unfortunately, the origin
of the Vedic civilization and its relation to the Indus
Valley civilization remains highly controversial.
See the Aryan Invasion
Theory. The texts describe a geography that some
believe to be north India. The greatest river of the
Rigveda
was Sarasvati,
often identified with the defunct Hakra
river in Pakistan,
but which ceased to reach the sea by about 1900
BC. Now, a dry river bed that has been seen to fit
the description of the old Saraswati River has been
found in modern-day North-West India.
Our knowledge of the early Aryans comes mainly from
the Rigveda,
the earliest of the Vedas.
Political
organization
The
grama (village), vis and jana
were political units of the early Aryans.
A vis was probably a subdivision of a jana
and a grama was probably a smaller unit than
the other two. The leader of a grama was called
gramani and that of a vis was called
vispati. Another unit was the gana
whose head was a jyeshta (elder).
The
rashtra (state) was governed by a rajan
(king). The king is often referred to as gopa
(protector) and samrat (supreme ruler). He
governed the people with their consent and approval.
It is possible that he was sometimes elected. The sabha
and samiti were popular councils.
The
main duty of the king was to protect the tribe. He was
aided by two functionaries, the purohita (chaplain)
and the senani (army chief; sena:
army). The former not only gave advice to the ruler
but also practiced spells and charms for success in
war. Soldiers on foot (patti) and on chariots
(rathins), armed with bow and arrow were common.
The king employed spasa (spies) and dutas
(messengers). He often got a ceremonial gift, bali,
from the people.
Society
and economy
Rig
Vedic society was characterized by a nomadic lifestyle
with cattle rearing being the
chief occupation. The Aryans kept hordes of cattle and
cows were held in high esteem. Milk
was an important part of the diet. Agriculture
was of equal importance and went hand in hand with cattle
rearing. It grew more prominent with time as the community
settled down. The cow was also the standard unit of
barter;
coins were not used in this
period.
Families
were patrilineal,
and people prayed for abundance of sons. Education of
women was not neglected, and some even composed Rig
Vedic hymns. Marriage for love as well as for money
was known. The concept of caste
and hereditary nature of profession was unknown to the
early Aryans.
The
food of the early Aryans consisted of parched grain
and cakes, milk and milk products, and various fruits
and vegetables.
Consumption of meat was common. A passage in the Rig
Veda describes how to apportion the meat of a sacrificed
horse.
Beef was also eaten, although this practice gradually
declined since the cow was a valuable resource: it is
often described as aghnya (that which should
not be killed). It must be borne in mind that vegetarianism
took firm root in India only after the rise of Buddhism
and Jainism
in the sixth century BC.
Literature
and Religion
Vedic
or Hindu
literature consists primarily of the Vedas;
but also includes Shruti
and various Smriti
texts. The Vedic rites were meant to help the participant
transform; this was primarily accomplished via sacrifices
(such as the agnihotra).
Astronomical
references in the Vedas help provide some broad approximations
that help date the beginning of the tradition. Due to
the precession
of the equinoxes, the seasons shift with relation
to the fixed zodiac at a rate of about a month every
two thousand years. Some Vedic notices mark the beginning
of the year at the vernal equinox in Orion;
this was the case around 4500 BC.
The
rishis saw the universe as going through unceasing change
in a cycle of birth and death, potentially free yet,
paradoxically, governed by order. This order was reflected
in the bandhu
(connections) between the planets, the elements of the
body, and the mind. At the deepest level, the whole
universe was bound to, and reflected in, the individual
consciousness.
The
place of sacrifice represents the cosmos. The three
fires used stand for the three divisions of space. The
course of the sacrifice represents the year, and all
such ritual forms part of continuing annual performances.
The rite culminates in the ritual rebirth of the yajamana
(sacrificer), which signifies the regeneration of his
universe. It is sacred theatre, built upon paradoxes
of reality, where symbolic deaths of animals and humans,
including the yajamana himself, may be enacted.
The
Vedic gods represent the cognitive centers of the self.
Vedic science is the science of consciousness. These
have evolved into the Hindu
paths of Yoga and Vedanta, which is a religious
path that is the 'essence' of the Vedas.
The
Vedic pantheon
is considered to consist of thirty-three different gods,
which are placed, in groups of eleven, into one of the
three different categories: atmospheric, terrestrial,
or celestial, each of which has its own area of responsibility.
But just because a god is in one category does not mean
that it is completely different from a god from another
category; for sometimes a god from one category will
have some of the same qualities of a god from another
category. This is because the Vedic system is recursive.
It has developed into a broader group but it is also
seen in Vedic philosophy that they are manifestations
of one divine ground known as Brahman.
This thought of unity is expressed severally in Vedic
texts.
The
categories of the gods are: 1) Agni,
terrestrial; 2) Indra, atmospheric; and 3)
Surya
or Vishnu, celestial that mirrors
the body, prana, and atman division of the individual.
Since one aspires to reach the inner being through the
prana (atmosphere), many Vedic hymns extol Indra.
See
also: Gayatrimantra
The
Vedic or Hindu
religion presents a unitary view of the universe with
God seen as immanent and transcendent in the forms of
Ishvara
and Brahman,
respectively. Brahman
is projected into various deities in the human mind.
The main deities were Indra,
Varuna,
Surya
(the Sun), Mitra, Vayu, Agni and Soma. Goddesses included
Prithvi,
Aditi,
Ushas
and Sarasvati. Deities
were not viewed as all-powerful. The relationship between
the devotee and the deity was one of transaction. Each
deity had a specific role; at any given point, a particular
deity was considered superior to the others.
The
mode of worship was performance of sacrifices and chanting
of verses. The priests helped the common man in performing
rituals. People prayed for abundance of children, cattle
and wealth.
The
later Vedic period
The
transition from the early to the later Vedic period
was marked by the emergence of agriculture as the dominant
economic activity and a corresponding decline in the
significance of cattle rearing. Several changes went
hand in hand with this. For instance, several large
kingdoms arose because of the increasing importance
of land and its protection. We now discuss several aspects
of later Vedic/Hindu life in detail.
Kingdoms
Several
small kingdoms and tribes merged to form a few large
ones which were often at war with each other. 16 mahajanapadas
(great kingdoms) are referred to in some of the literature.
By this time the Aryan tribes had spread from their
original home in the west to much of the east and the
south. The power of the king greatly increased. Rulers
gave themselves titles like ekarat (the one
ruler), sarvabhumi (ruler of all the earth)
and chakravartin (protector of land). Note
that in early Vedic times he was called gopa,
protector of cows. The kings performed sacrifices like
rajasuya, (royal consecration) vajapeya
(drink of strength) and ashvamedha
(horse sacrifice). The coronation ceremony was a major
social occasion. Several functionaries came into being
in addition to the purohita and the senani of earlier
times. The participation of the people in the activities
of the government decreased.
Society
The
concept of varna and the rules of marriage
became more rigid, but not yet watertight. The status
of the Brahmanas
and Kshatriyas
increased greatly. To legitimize their position and
the increase their power, the Brahmanas proliferated
a large number of sacrifices and developed specialization
of an extreme order, and also restricted social mobility.
The proper enunciation of verses was considered essential
for prosperity and success in war. Kshatriyas amassed
wealth, and commissioned the performance of sacrifices.
Many rituals emerged to strengthen the alliance between
these two groups. But the varna system in India has
remained fluid.
References
- R.C.
Majumdar and others. An Advanced History of
India, MacMillan, 1967.
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