South Asian Media Net

Overview

With about 800 dialects and 15 officially recognized languages, several religions including Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Jainism, Buddhism, Sikhism, Zoroastrianism and Judaism, various styles of art, architecture, literature, music and dance, and several lifestyles from the urban and rural to the tribal, India is a melting pot of cultural diversity.

Indian music spans various traditions, from folk songs and music, which varies from region to region, tribal music, classical and semi-classical traditions and popular music. There are two recognized styles of classical music - the Hindustani (northern India) style and the Carnatic style of South India. Each also has its dedicated instruments - to name just a few, Hindustani music has the sitar, sarod, sur-bahaar, bansuri, shahnai and the violin while Carnatic musicians generally use the veena, venu, nagasvaram, gottuvadyam or the violin as the main melody instrument. Percussion and other accompanying instruments are equally varied. Vocal traditions in both classical styles are also different. Broadly speaking, Carnatic music is devotional in nature while the Hindustani style is secular. Apart from these traditions, there are various semi-classical styles (such as ghazals and qawwalis) and also a rich vein of popular music typified in songs from Indian films which are generally musicals.

Indian dance has an unbroken tradition of over 2000 years, with themes drawn from mythology, legends and classical literature. It also can be broadly divided into folk/tribal dances which have many regional variations, and the classical dances, which are based on ancient texts and have rigid rules of presentation. Some of the major classical dance traditions are Bharata Natyam, Kathak, Odissi, Manipuri, Kuchipudi, Mohiniattam and Kathakali.

Indian literature can date its origins to the oral tradition of the Vedas and the great epics of India, which are still an integral part of daily life. Poetry, drama, fiction, non-fiction and all other literary styles have a substantial corpus in each of India's major languages and in quite a few dialects, while the oral tradition also continues through folk songs and dramas. Theatre in India also has ancient historical roots, though classical theatre is performed very rarely nowadays, having been overtaken by a vibrant tradition of folk theatre (including puppet and shadow theatre) and modern professional theatre, which draws not only dramas written in any Indian language but also on non-Indian theatre from Shakespeare to Chekov to Andrew Lloyd Webber, either in English or in translation.

Indian art also has its classical and folk traditions which are still vibrantly alive, and covers the gamut of genres from painting to sculpture to handicrafts. Indian visual art has also been influenced by developments elsewhere in the world, and contemporary Indian art is steadily developing its own language in trying to interpret the Indian ethos in as many mediums as possible.

No overview of Indian culture can afford to ignore Indian cinema, with the first Indian movie having been made in 1912, the first talkie in 1931, and with the largest output of feature films in the world today, from pot-boilers to films which have attracted international acclaim. The advent of cable has given new life to television-oriented projects and soap operas, comedy serials and the like are rapidly adding to the many diverse facets of Indian culture.

Paintings

India has very strong but ancient traditions in painting. The evidence lies in the frescoes of Ajanta and Ellora, the Buddhist palm leaf manuscripts and the Jain texts. Religion had a great influence on the early Indian paintings. There are several series depicting the life of Lord Krishna. The Islamic period saw many schools bearing Persian and Indian influence, produce miniatures in tempera on paper. The Ragini paintings, depicting the musical modes, are unique in the world.

Some of the well-known Indian painting schools are the Rajput, Deccan, Kangra and Moghul.

The Bengal renaissance and modern art, influenced by Europe, also made their mark. The doyen of Indian modern art, Abanindranath Tagore, used Japanese and Chinese techniques in his paintings and drawings. The Nobel laureate, Rabindranath Tagore, was an accomplished painter. His contemporaries, Nandalal Bose, Samarendranath Gupta and A.K. Haldar among them, laid the foundation of modern Indian painting. Jamini Roy was another founder of modern Indian painting and graphic art. Amrita Shergill, half Hungarian, represents the best among the European style painters of early 20th century. The art scene in India is enriched today by artists like M.F. Hussain, J. Swaminathan, N.S. Bendre, Krishen Khanna, Vivan Sundaram, Bhupen Khakar, Ghulam Shaikh and many others.

Dances

The origin of classical dance in India goes back to 2BC when the ancient treatise on dance, Natya Shastra, was compiled. Dance in India is guided by the elaborate codes in the Natya Shastra and by mythology, legend and classical literature. Both classical and fold form of dances are performed in India.

Classical dance forms have rigid rules for presentation. Among the leading forms of classical dance are Bharat Natyam, Kathakali, Kathak, Manipuri, Odissi, Kuchipudi and Mohini Attam. Bharat Natyam, originating in Tamil Nadu, has movements of pure rhythm, rendering a story dramatically in different moods.

Kathakali, the dance drama from Kerala, requires the artist to wear an elaborate mask. The principal classical dance of north India, Kathak, originated as a religious performance but later developed as a court dance under the Moghuls. The lyrical style of dance, Manipuri, comes from the eastern State of Manipur. It described the games of Krishna and the "Gopis". Odissi was once a temple dance in Orissa. Kuchipudi, the dance-drama from Andhra Pradesh, is based on themes from the epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata. In addition, there are numerous forms of folk and tribal dance in India.

All dance forms follow the same gestures or hasta mudras for each of these rasas. The major schools of classical dance in India are Kathak, Manipuri, Odissi, Bharatha Natyam, Kuchipudi, Kathakali and Mohiniattam, apart from the Folk and Tribal dances.
Kathak is the predominant dance of north India. This form of dance gets its name from the word "Katha" (story), since it originated from the devotional recitation of the storytellers or Kathakars who were attached to the templesThe detail of different genres of classical dances is as under.

1.Bharatnatyam

The intimate association of dance with religion and as a ritual, a form of worship in the temples is well established.
The present BharataNãtyam can be traced back to this form.
It has been established from the sculptural evidence, that the technique of movement which this style follows can be traced back to the 5th century, the position common to the classical dance ( mãrgi style ) was the ardhamandali position (also called aramandi , with the out-turned knees.

By the 10th century A.D. , this basic position was common to dance styles from Orissa to Gujarat and from Khajuraho to Trivandrum. From about the 10th century A.D. in sculptures of dance, we find that basic position of the lower limbs is common to relics in particularly every part of India.

After the 10th century, BharataNãtyam seems to have developed chiefly in the South and gradually came to be restricted to what is now known as Tamil Nadu. The tradition was nurtuted, sustained and kept alive by the successive Pandya, Nayakas and Maratha Rulers till the end of the 19th century. The Bhakti movement, the poets, the Vãggeyakãras, the saints, the musicians and composers helped the growth of this art.

About the 14th century A.D. we find that technical illustrations of dance movements were made in the Shãrangapãni temple at Kumbakonam and in the four magnificent gopurams of theNatarãja Temple in Chidambaram. Illustrations of the charis and the karanas are found in temples of Gangaikonda, Cholapuram, Kumbakonam, Madurai and Kancheepuram.

Performance & Features
The complete performance of this dance involves six stage known as Alarippu, Jatiswaram, Sabdam, Varnam, Padam and Thillana. These stages combine the elements of Nritta or pure dance, and Nritya (expressive dance).Nritta comprises three elements, a basic standing position, movement of the legs and feet and also decorative hand gestures.Timing is based on beats of equal length known as Jatis.

Vocalist conduct the dance movements by calling out Shollukatus or rhythmic syllables.

There are a number of musicians and instrumentalists who provide the musical accompaniment. Typically there is one or more vocalist, a person reciting the dance syllables, and a mridangam. Additionally, one usually finds violin, vina (saraswati vina), or venu (bamboo flute). There is also a thallam (manjira) which is usually played by the person reciting the dance syllables. The overall style of the Bharat Natyam musical accompaniment is not unlike other Carnatic performances. All of the traditional elements of classical dance are present in Bharat Natyam. The mudras (hand positions), abhinaya (facial expressions), and padams (narrative dances) form the basis for the performance.

Today Bharata Natyam is one of the most popular and widely performed dance styles and is practiced by male and female dancers all over India. Due to its wide range of movements and postures and the balanced melange of the rhythmic and mimetic aspects lends itself well to experimental and fusion choreography. Degree and Post Graduate courses covering the practice and theory of Bharata Natyam as well as the languages associated with its development are available at major universities of India.

2. Kathak

The predominant styles of the dance are the intricate footwork and rapid pirouettes. The typical Kathak costume resembles the Mughal miniature paintings. This form of dance is performed by both men and women.

Odissi is based on the popular devotion to Lord Krishna and the verses of the Sanskrit play Geet Govindam are used to depict the love and devotion to God. Odissi presents a synthesis of Lasya and Tandava aspects of the Indian Classical Dance. Odissi dance performance involves a balance between pure dance, expressional dance and a combination of acting and dance.

4. Manipuri

Manipuri is the traditional dance of Manipur. The Manipuris are considered descendants of Gandarva, the legendary musicians and dancers in the celestial court of Lord Indira. The origin of the word Manipuri can be traced to the legends. According to the legend, Lord Shiva and Goddess Parvati are said to have danced in the valleys of Manipur, accompanied by the Gandharvas to the celestial light of the Mani or jewel from the head of the serpent Athishesha.
Manipuri lays emphasis in involving the entire body in the dance other than the facial expression. The principal dance item in Manipuri is Ras, which depicts bhakti rasa. The innumerable escapes of Lord Krishna are depicted in Ras. This form of dance lays emphasis on lyrical grace and delicacy of hand gestures.
The Chooloms is another form of Manipuri, which includes vigorous tandava items and fast rhythms. Choolams involves singing and dancing, directed towards achieving the union of god. In Choolams, Poong Choolam is danced by men holding drums, and Kartal Choolam by both men and women using cymbals in their hands.

5. Kuchipudi

Kuchipudi costumes look similar to Bharathanatyam costumes. Elegant foot work is an important aspect of Kuchipudi. Some special performances include those of dancing on brass plates and moving the plate with the feet to the tune of accompanying music. Yet another is the formation of beautiful floor patterns using efficient feet movements.

6. Kathakali

Kathakali is the traditional dance of the people of Kerala. It is a well-developed dance-drama where the actors depict characters from the Indian mythologies. Kathakali combines dance with dialogue to bring myth and legend to life in the temple courtyards of Kerala.

Kathakali is perfomed with elaborate masks and costumes. The dancers wear huge skirts and headdress, and the make-up is very intricate. Kathakali performances are generally in open air on a stage covered with coarse mats, with brass lamp providing the lighting. The dance is performed to the tune of Chenda, a drum like instrument that produces thundering beats, and the Maddala, which produces a softer and relaxed sound, along with the large bronze cymbal. All these three instruments are used in unison to herald the performance.

7. Mohiniattam

This is a semi-classical dance form of Kerala. It is essentially a solo dance, perfomed by women. The word Mohini means a maiden who steals the heart of the onlooker. It is thought that Vaishnava devotees gave the name of Mohiniattam to this dance form. Legend says that Lord Vishnu took on the guise of a Mohini, the arch enchantress, to enthrall people.

Mohiniattam performances depict love and devotion to god. The hero of most performances is Lord Vishnu or Lord Krishna. Mohiniattam involves delicate footsteps and subtle expressions. The movements are graceful and the costumes are sober and attractive. Mohiniattam follows the Hastha Lakshanadeepika, a textbook for Mudras. The vocal music for Mohiniattam is classical Carnatic.

Mohiniattam has flavours of Bharata Natyam and Kathakali in it. The basic dance steps of Mohiniattam are the Adavus - Taganam, Jaganam, Dhaganam and Sammisram. Mohiniattam maintains a realistic makeup and simple dressing. The Mohiniattam costume includes a white jacket and white sari, and tresses bedecked with jasmine flowers.

8. Folk and tribal dances

Indian folk and tribal dances are simple dances, and are performed to express joy. Folk dances are performed for every possible occasion, to celebrate the arrival of seasons, birth of a child, a wedding and festivals. The dances are extremely simple with minimum of steps or movement. The dances burstwith verve and vitality. Men and women perform some dances exclusively, while in some perfomances men and women dance together. On most occasions, the dancers sing themselves, while being accompanied by artists on the instruments. Each form of dance has a specific costume. Most costumes are flamboyant with extensive jewels.

The northeast part of the country is the home for over 60 tribes. Each tribe has its own range of tribal dances. The exciting dances of the Nagas and the Bihus of Assam, are performed to celebrate spring and harvesting.

The chief folk dance of Gujarat, the Dandiya, is performed using sticks. Each performer holds two sticks, which they strike alternately to the right and left while the group dances. They also move diagonally, clockwise, anti-clockwise, as they strike the sticks.

The Bhangra dance of Punjab is danced by men, to the rhythm of the drum. The dance includes a wide range of leaps and jumps. Dancers stand on each other's shoulder while dancing to the music.

There are hundreds of Indian folk and tribal dances. Each region of India has its own folk dance. Both men and women perform the bamboo dance of Mizoram. While the men hold the bamboo, the women folk dance between the bamboo. In this performance, the sound of the bamboo hitting each other is the rhythm. Though dangerous if a rhythm is missed, these experienced dancers perform with grace and with care.

In the south, the dummy horse dance or the Poikalkuthirai, is very famous. Dancers fit dummy legs to their legs and dance to the tune of the music. Both men and women perform this form of art. In Tamil Nadu, dancers place a karagam or a decorated jug, on their head and dance while balancing the karagam.

While there are numerous folk and tribal dances, they are constantly improved. The skill and the imagination of the dances influence the performance.

Theatre

The classical theatre survives only in a few cities. But the folk theatre thrives in almost every linguistic region. Its themes are becoming modern. The professional theatre is largely confined to big urban centres. It draws on the work of modern playwrights and also likes to experiment with various forms including folk theatre. The plays are performed in Indian languages as well as English. The rich tradition of puppet theatre also survives in many parts of the country. The National School of Drama not only trains students, but also conducts research in classical, traditional and modern drama.

Film Industry

The country leads the world in the output of movie films, with more than 900 produced annually. They command an enormous domestic market and have become increasingly popular abroad, particularly in Asia, Africa and West Asia. The major production centres are Mumbai, Madras and Calcutta. Movies are the most popular medium of entertainment. Much of the commercial cinema revolves around social dramas and thrillers with many songs and dance sequences thrown in. But an art cinema which takes a serious look at Indian society is becoming increasingly popular. There has been widespread recognition of Indian artistes and directors at film festivals in different parts of the world. The late Satyajit Ray was awarded many prestigious international awards including the Oscar in 1992 for Lifetime Achievement in Cinema.

India's film business is set for a period of sustained growth. Among the impressive forecasts in some report: production investment will rise 70% by 2006, the Indian film industry's export revenues will climb 120% over the same period, foreign films' theatrical rentals in India will also rise steeply.

India has not one film industry but several. The largest, and incidentally the only one making more films today than a decade ago, is the Hindi-language Bollywood industry based in Mumbai. Although the Bollywood industry's output of over 240 films in 2000 made it the largest of India's film industries, the Telegu, Malayalam, Kannada and Bengali language industries are also significant, between them producing over 500 films in 2000

India's government is moving to encourage corporatisation of the industry, improving access to bank finance and reforming taxation laws to encourage exports. Behind these measures lies a perception that the film industry, like telecommunications and information technology, is one that can leverage the country's highly skilled workforce and low costs to create an internationally competitive economy. Valuable export markets have already been developed in countries like the United Kingdom, North America, the Gulf states, South Africa and Kenya.

The Indian government is convinced of the link between a healthy theatrical exhibition industry and film industry success. In order to encourage modernisation of the country's 9,000 hardtops (to which can be added another 3,000 mobile cinemas), entertainment taxes are being massaged downwards, especially for new cinemas, and import duties on cinema equipment have been cut. After a number of false starts involving foreign investors like Warner Bros, United Cinemas International, Kodak and Decatron, it now seems India will at long last get its multiplex boom, though in practice this will mostly mean multiscreening of existing large halls by their Indian owners, together with construction of relatively small new multiplex cinemas. Cinema equipment suppliers, however, are already enjoying good business as local operators seek to upgrade their venues.

Part of the opportunity is not only to sell films but also to make them. Sony and Fox are already looking to become good corporate citizens, and feed their satellite channels. India is somewhere both strategic and creative types should be interested.

The composers in both the systems had before them the same ideas, but the approach was different. The raga system, which is life and soul of Indian music, served the same purpose to the Indian composer as did harmony to the composer in Europe.

The ancient Indians believed in the divine origin of music. The purest form of sound was considered equal to cosmic energy. As a result, music and religion were always closely intertwined. Classical music tradition was probably evolved from the religious poems and chants of the Vedic period. It was later codified by Bharata Muni.

At present, there are two schools of classical music-the Hindustani style of the North and the Carnatic of the South. All classical music is set to the raga arrangements of musical notes that have a characteristic mood and are repeated in any composition. Musicians, however, have considerable freedom to improvise within the framework, and performances are judged very often by the brilliance of the improvisation.

Ragas

As regards Indian classical music in general, there are a huge number of modes (ragas). Musicians will elaborate a single mode in detail, largely through improvisation but also based on compositions and formal demands. There are also pieces (called "ragamala" or "ragamalika") in which modulations are employed. Individual pieces are shorter in Carnatic music, so recitals are constructed by selecting items in contrasting ragas. The rationale is specifically contrast (usually), as opposed to Turkish music where modes are chosen for a directed development, or Arabic music where the frequent modulations should be as unnoticed as possible, etc. A general aesthetic discussion of this type could become much more extensive; please see my regular column for a series of more speculative remarks.

In both Hindustani & Carnatic music, songs (or instrumental compositions in Hindustani music) are usually (although not always) preceded by an improvised unmeasured prelude (alap/alaapana) which is sometimes extensive. This is followed by the "composition section" in which a specific rhythmic cycle (tala) is used (ordinarily with percussion accompaniment). Although it is usually based upon a pre-existing composition, there are specific improvisational features to this section as well. This aspect earns Indian classical music comparisons with Western Jazz, with which it shares some demands.

Hindustani music is the music of North India, involving both Hindu and Muslim musicians. In this case (as opposed to every other world classical tradition, except European), there are a large number of high quality recordings. Different people will, no doubt, like different styles to varying degrees. In this case, I am only going to list some discs I particularly enjoy without any intention of coming close to encyclopedic coverage.

Dhrupad is the older style of Hindustani music, now rare. The style with which most readers will be more familiar is the more modern style, especially as represented in the Hindustani instrumental (sitar, etc.) list above.
Carnatic music is the music of South India, different in many of its terms and formal demands, although similar in overall outline. The two share some common origins, but the details of these relationships can be contentious.

Indian classical music continues to gain tremendously in popularity in the West, and is now taught widely. In addition to many opportunities to learn it at universities or in specialized instruction, more general resources are appearing. The recently released "Raga Guide" on Nimbus Records is a landmark and well worth pursuing for someone interested in learning the rudiments of ragas:

Hindustani Khayal singing

Khayal (literally "imagination") is the standard classical vocal form in Hindustani music. Its development is more recent than dhrupad, and it generally eschews the long alaps, but has a larger degree of improvisation (analogous to an instrumental gat) in the metrical singing. It does have its own long history, and has a very wide variety of performance styles (gharanas). Standard accompaniment is the tabla for rhythm, as well as a melodic accompaniment (sarangi, giving way to harmonium).

Khayal tends to be less well-received in the West than instrumental music or even dhrupad, but this is partly coincidental. Although the raga bhava of dhrupad is extremely impressive, the typical khayal recital will contain more suprises and personal touches. In addition, while there is a certain "universal" feel to instrumental music,
A list of some famous classical singers is as under:

1- Ustad Amir Khan -
Navras Nav-Ratna,
Ragas Yaman, Hamsadhwani, Puriya, Abhogi

2- Ustad Amir Khan:
Ragas Nand, Bahar, Darbari Kanada

3- Amir Khan (1912-1974) was one of the most widely acclaimed singers in Hindustani music, and has been credited with founding the Indore gharana. Amir Khan's original and thorough command of form comes off convincingly, with a very reflective and philosophical character projected in grand architectronics. His discography has really blossomed of late, so there are other recordings of similar quality.

4- Mallikarjun Mansur (1910-1992) was famous from a very young age. After encountering Carnatic music early, he went on to study with the Gwalior and then Jaipur gharanas in his maturity. His performances can be electrifying, featuring a variety of rhythmic patterns and imaginative elaborations.7-

5- Iqbal Ahmad Khan (b.1954) is now the Khalifa of the Delhi Gharana, in succession to Tanras Khan. This is one of the oldest and most classical schools, dating back to a founding by the legendary Persian musician Amir Kushrau. The present performance is grand & spacious, with a luminous intensity. Although not well-known, it certainly establishes Iqbal Ahmad Khan as a khayaliya of the highest merit.

6- Gangubai Hangal (b.1913) is one of the most senior Hindustani musicians, as well as a long-time leading traditionalist among female vocalists. The present performance uses the typical repertory of the Kirana gharana and is quite forceful & memorable in a very straight-forward way.

Hindustani instrumental music

There are many quality & readily obtainable Hindustani instrumental recordings, so this list involves more difficult choices than most. Recorded sound quality is superlative, unless otherwise noted.

Sitar
The sitar is the best-known instrument of India. It is a pear-shaped plucked-string instrument, with frets and a general "buzzing" resonance. It gets much of its sound quality from the ability to pull strings to get multiple notes along the same fret. It is an instrument played in a vast array of styles.

1-Ustad Vilayat Khan
2-Manilal Nag,.
3- Ravi Shankar
4- Nikhil Banerjee
5- Balaram Pathak
6- Rais Khan.

Sarod
The sarod is the second most popular solo instrument in North India. It is a fretless, plucked-string instrument with a resonant skin face and metallic fingerboard. It is especially good for glissandi, performed with the fingertips along the board. Striking the strings can also be forceful, and so the instrument presents good expressive potential.

Sarangi

The sarangi is a fretless, bowed-string instrument with many sympathetic resonating strings. The tone is somewhat similar to the European viola da gamba, although it is a solid wooden block with a skin covering and the resonances permit a richer tonal pallette. The sarangi was the primary instrument for accompanying khayal singing (now it is the harmonium), but is dying out because it is so difficult to control. I particularly enjoy its sonority and resources, especially in the work of Ram Narayan.

Violin

The violin was transplanted first to Carnatic music, but has recently spread to Hindustani music as well. Other instruments with a major following are the bansuri (bamboo flute) whose leading performer is Hariprasad Chaurasia, the santur (hammered dulcimer) whose leading performer is Shivkumar Sharma, and the shehnai (shawm) whose leading performer is Bismillah Khan.

Tabla

Appearing as accompaniment throughout this list, the tabla is a famous set of two drums, ubiquitous to Hindustani music and known for its intricate finger-work. There are also dozens of solo tabla recordings, in a wide range of styles.

North Indian Classical: Dhrupad

Dhrupad is essentially a poetic form incorporated into an extended presentation style marked by precise and orderly elaboration of a raga. The exposition preceding the composed verses is called alap, and is usually the longest portion of the performance. This aspect of dhrupad has been the most influential, and is reflected in other North Indian musical formats, especially in instrumental music and even khayal singing.

The term dhrupad itself means "the literal rendering of verse into music" and so the songs have a particularly potent impact. The actual dhrupad song-form is set in the rhythm chautal (4+4+2+2), and rendered in steady declaration in an austere style. Some performances in this idiom include related songs, especially the called dhamar, in dhamar tala (5+5+4 beats), but there are also other rhythmic forms which sometimes appear. These are usually somewhat lighter in content than the dhrupad proper. The rhythmic sections are generally accompanied by the two-head drum pakhawaj (similar to the mridangam of Carnatic music).

Dhrupad is often presented as the oldest Indian music, with an explicit continuity to ancient times. In this respect, it is perhaps the most direct development of Vedic chanting, and the literal respect for text in dhrupad is representative of those scriptural ideas. However many of the codifications of dhrupad are dated more specifically to the same period as the origin of khayal, and the two might be viewed more accurately as parallel developments, although dhrupad is certainly more austere in its formalism.

This music provides a wealth of depth in melodic nuance, with the smallest motion elaborated for minutes in a variety of time-tested techniques. The sophistication of the unmeasured exposition is nearly impossible to match in the world's music, and is buoyed by a variety of patterns derived from the original melody of the raga. Today the Dagar family dominates the scene of dhrupad vocal performance due to their dedication and world-wide prominence, but there are other styles remaining.

At this point, this list represents only a third of the available dhrupad vocal recordings. I have heard most of the others, and they are generally good or at least interesting, but I have decided to remain selective here. There are still not too many recordings available, although there are still some significant older recordings which have not reappeared on CD. The recorded sound quality is excellent for all citations.
Vocal

Shiva Mahadeva:
Nasir Zahiruddin Dagar
Nasir Faiyazuddin Dagar
Uday Bhawalkar - Dagarvani

It is generally difficult to make distinctions among these recordings, as it often comes down to which raga one wants at a particular time. Dhrupad seems especially sensitive to "time of day" constraints based on classical theory.

Although the Dagar style of dhrupad is certainly the best-known, the Renaissance of dhrupad has allowed dhrupad singing by performers in other styles to be recorded as well, and these examples can also be interesting.

Rudra Veena
Alongside vocal music, the ancient instrument rudra veena (also called the bin) is associated quite strongly with this repertory. The performance exhibits the same wealth of melodic nuance and sophisticated development. There are also other instruments on which dhrupad style renditions have been performed, and in recent years this range has been extended considerably, even into Western instruments. Dhrupad must therefore be seen first as a musical style.

Ustad Zia Mohiuddin Dagar
Bahauddin Dagar
Asad Ali Khan his recital a good contrast for the list.

Handicrafts

India's vast cultural diversity has resulted in a treasure of handicrafts in varied styles. Each handicraft is made by tightly knit communities, according to traditional methods that have been passed down the generations.

The evolution of Indian handicrafts can be traced to three principal sources - the royal courts, religious and folk art. The kings of the princely states patronized some of the country's greatest art traditions. Religious sources include the brass lamps used in Hindu temples, and in most households. Folk art and objects of everyday use that range from pots to embroidered leather, indicate India's ongoing traditions of crafts. Most of the crafts are made by craftsmen in the traditional way.

Handicrafts in India can be classified by the medium on which that they are worked on. Wood craft ranges from carvings on fragrant sandalwood to ebony, sculptured or inlaid with brass wire, ivory or mother of pearl. Stone craft includes marble mosaics inlaid with semi-precious stones. Metal craft ranges from enameled brassware, copperware to folk art figures.

Pottery encompasses the traditional blue pottery of Rajasthan, the terracotta toys of rural India, and the ornaments with bright blue motifs. Ivory carvings and miniature paintings on ivory represent crafts of the classical tradition. Gold jewellery, silk brocades woven with gold thread and pure silk carpets of Persian designs are instant.

Many of these spices are also noted for their medicinal properties. They, like the basic ingredient, vary from region to region. Although not all Hindus are vegetarians, you will probably eat more vegetable dishes than is common in Europe, particularly in South India. Indian vegetables are cheap, varied and plentiful and superbly cooked.

Broadly speaking, meat dishes are more common in the north, notably Rogan Josh (curried lamb), Gushtaba (spicey meat balls in yoghurt), and the delicious Biriyani (chicken or lamb in orange flavoured rice, sprinkled with sugar and rose water).

Mughlai cuisine is rich, creamy, deliciously spiced and liberally sprinkled with nuts and saffron. The ever popular Tandoori cooking (chicken, meat or fish marinated in herbs and baked in a clay oven) and kebabs are also northern cuisine.

In the south, curries are mainly vegetable and inclined to be more hot. Specialities to look out for are Bhujia (vegetable curry), Dosa, Idli and Sambar (rice pancakes, dumplings with pickles and vegetable and lentil curry), and Raitas (yoghurt with grated cucumber and mint). Coconut is a major ingredient of South Indian cooking. On the West coast there is a wide choice of fish and shellfish; Bombay duck (curried or fried bomnloe fish) and pomfret (Indian salmon) are just two. Another specialty is the Parsi Dhan Sak (lamb or chicken cooked with curried lentils) and Vindaloo vinegar marinade. Fish is also a feature of Bengali cooking as in Dahi Maach (curried fish in yoghurt flavoured with turmeric and ginger) and Malai (curried prawn with coconut).

One regional distinction is that whereas in the south rice is the staple food, in the north this is supplemented and sometimes substituted by a wide range of flat breads, such as Pooris, Chappatis and Nan. Common throughout India is Dhal (crushed lentil soup with various additional vegetables), and Dhai, the curd or yoghurt which accompanies the curry. Besides being tasty, it is a good "cooler"; more effective than liquids when things get too hot. Sweets are principally milk based puddings, pastries and pancakes. Available throughout India is Kulfi, the Indian ice cream, Rasgullas (cream cheese balls flavoured with rose water), Gulab Jamuns (flour, yoghurt and ground almonds), and Jalebi (pancakes in syrup). Besides a splendid choice of sweets and sweetmeats, there is an abundance of fruit, both tropical – mangoes, pomegranates and melons – and temperate apricots, apples and strawberries. Western confectionery is available in major centres. It is common to finish the meal by chewing Pan as a digestive. Pan is a betel leaf in which are wrapped spices such as aniseed and cardamon.

Another custom is to eat with your fingers but remember only of the right hand ... Besides the main dishes, there are also countless irresistible snacks available on every street corner, such as samosa, fritters, dosa and vada. For the more conservative visitor, western cooking can always be found. Indeed, the best styles of cooking from throughout the world can be experienced in the major centres in India. Tea is India’s favourite drink,and.many of the varieties are famous the world over. It will often come ready brewed with milk and sugar unless "tray tea",is specified. Coffee is increasingly popular..Nimbu Pani (lemon drink), Lassi (iced buttermilk) and coconut milk straight from the nut are cool and refreshing. Soft drinks (usually sweet) and bottled water are widely available, as, are ’Western alcoholic drinks. Indian beer and gin are comparable with the world’s best, and are not expensive. Note that Liquor Permits are required in Tamil Nadu and Gujarat.

The variety of Indian cooking is immense, it is colourful and aromatic, it can be fiery or not as desired and it is inexpensive even at the top class hotels. No wonder, then that it is now the third most popular cuisine in the world nor will it be any more surprising when it becomes the first.